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Forum on Public Policy Online

Spring 2009 edition (Posted September 2009)

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Terrorism

• Algeria at the Crossroads: How the United States Can Help the Algerians Fight the Battle Against Violent Islamic Extremists
  Frances J Belisle, Professor of Politics, Strayer University
• Ontological Gap: Eastern Spiritualism Western Materialism
  Allen S. Clark, Instructional Assistant Professor of Arabic, The University of Mississippi
• Perspectives on the Impact of Historical and Contemporary Terrorism on the World’s Indigenous Peoples
  Kenric Jones DeLong, Instructor of Social Sciences & Native American Studies, Montcalm Community College
• Terrorism: Dilemmas of Capitalism, Monotheism, Multiculturalism, Violence
  Leo Driedger, Professor Emeritus in Sociology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
• Linking political systems and war systems—systemic risks, paradoxes and blind spots
  Gorm Harste, Department of Political Science, Aarhus University, Denmark
• Global Governance:  The Case of Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing
  Leena Thacker Kumar and Joel R. Campbell
• How Successful Is Terrorism?
  James M. Lutz and Brenda J. Lutz
• An Interdisciplinary Approach to Tolerance of Ambiguity, Ecumenical Theology, and World Peace
  Joseph McGahan, Joseph Roberts and Keith Wilkerson
• The Global Financial Crisis—caused by Greed, Moral Meltdown and Public Policy Disasters
  Donald T. Wargo, Norman Baglini, and Kate Nelson

Algeria at the Crossroads: How the United States Can Help the Algerians Fight the Battle Against Violent Islamic Extremists
Frances J Belisle, Professor of Politics, Strayer University

Abstract
Algeria is a country generally misunderstood by many Americans both in the policies of her Government and in the writings of her scholars.  Algeria’s geographical location along the north coast of Africa acts almost as a metaphor for her dilemma; she is considered as part of the Mid-East when convenient, as part of Africa when necessary, and yet she is physically closer to Europe than to the Levant.  Fighting terrorism since her birth 60 years ago, Algeria has served as a test case both for those who use terrorism as a tactic and also for those who must respond to this tactic.  It is this unique situation, coupled with the globalization of terrorism, that puts Algeria at a precarious crossroads from which she can progress into the modern world or regress into the chaos of uncontrolled terrorism.  While the people of Algeria anxiously await a glimpse of the path that their country will take at this crucial juncture, we in the West, particularly in the United States, must ask ourselves two questions:  How can we help, and what can we learn?

Ontological Gap: Eastern Spiritualism Western Materialism
Allen S. Clark, Instructional Assistant Professor of Arabic, The University of Mississippi

Abstract
The epistemic underpinnings that drove the European Crusaders to cease their feudal infighting and expend their energies in ‘righteous wars,’ were, perhaps, those same underpinnings that motivated the Arab armies to unite their forces under Saladin’s call to Jihād.  Since that time (c. 1095-1651 CE), the East and the West have gone on two very different epistemological and ontological paths. The Arab World speaks from a theological, spiritual ontology using its grammar and its rules, while the West speaks from a capitalistic, materialistic ontology. An ontological gap between the East and the West occurred over a period of centuries; thus it may be difficult to determine a singular causative historical event. One could argue, however, that its roots could be traced to the ‘Great Separation’ (i.e., the separation of church and state) of the 17th century; a separation that never took place in the Islamic community.
Such a separation did not and effectively cannot take place in the Islamic community due to its legal system, which became a rigorous legislative codexed set of laws by the 12th century known as ‘uṣūl al-fiqḥ—[origins of understanding]. This was soon to become the source of “traditional dogma”; an approach to law that significantly influenced the collective Arab worldview and has forthwith imbued discourse coming out of the Arab World with spiritual and theological overtones.  This paper explores how this ontological gap influences translator choices in the Arabic to English language pair as seen in published terrorist communiqués by the western international news agencies.  The same spiritual/religious citations and allusions that lend authority to b. Lādin’s passages offering him a platform to convince his audience of the correctness and truthfulness of his ideas seemingly hold little to no substantial value to the western translator and are thus left to his or her whims; essentially reframing and repositioning al-Qācida’s overarching goals, basis, and foundation altering the original meaning through translation thereby affecting the manner in which the west receives and interprets its communiqués. The results of this study indicate that not only does an East-West ontological gap exist, but its impact on international news translation is real, constituting an internal bias that ultimately influences public opinion, which in turn guides foreign policy.

Perspectives on the Impact of Historical and Contemporary Terrorism on the World’s Indigenous Peoples
Kenric Jones DeLong, Instructor of Social Sciences & Native American Studies, Montcalm Community College

Abstract
By now, many have seen the late 19th century photo of Geronimo brandishing a rifle along with three members of his Apache band more recently captioned with the telling phrase: "Fighting Terrorism Since 1492."  The effect is to deliberately stand commonly accepted definitions and perceptions of terrorism on their head.
                This brief overview of the recent literature serves to illuminate how those definitions determine the context in which the issue has been viewed by both the powerful and the relatively powerless historically and in the 21st century.
                From the time of exploration and Columbus, through such episodes as Sullivan's campaign of terror against the Iroquois Confederacy, and the violence and terrorism directed against the Cherokee people in the 19th Century, history is replete with examples.  Stannard, Barker, Hoffman, Amnesty International, New Internationalist, Means, La Duke, and many others insist various forms of terrorism continue to impact native peoples around the globe today.  Indigenous activists resisting physical and cultural genocide, land grabs, and environmental desecration often have recently (post 9-11) passed antiterrorism laws used by agents of the state to subdue them.  Examples can be found in Brazil, Chile, Malaysia, Australia, New Zealand, Ecuador, Colombia, Bangladesh, and Peru, to name but a few of the most overt.
                In the words of Amnesty International:  "Indigenous human rights defenders who speak out face intimidation and violence, often with the collaboration of the state.  In many instances, peaceful support for efforts of Indigenous Peoples to maintain their own cultural identity or exercise control over their traditional lands and resources is branded treason or support for terrorism, leading to violent treatment at the hands of authorities" -- the very kind of thing Noam Chomsky describes as the "terror of counterterrorism".This paper explores what several contemporary scholars have brought to light regarding this aspect of terrorism virtually ignored by the mainstream media and most post 9-11 academic endeavors.

Terrorism: Dilemmas of Capitalism, Monotheism, Multiculturalism, Violence
Leo Driedger, Professor Emeritus in Sociology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada

Abstract
To explore the nature of Terrorism, this author will deal with suggested points 6) the Sociology of terrorism, and 3) religion and ethnic hostility. In his presidential address at the Society for Scientific Study of Religion, sociologist Rodney Start (JSSR, 2004) exhorted delegates to broaden the theories of Durkheim, Marx and Weber, which I will do as well. So this paper will first deal with the sociology of terrorism, and then more specifically focus on multiculturalism and religion.
                Durkheim was concerned with solidarity and the efforts of many minorities to solidify separate identities, important in promoting multiculturalism. Karl Marx was concerned that such multiple boundaried identities would become targets and lead to much conflict. Max Weber focused on social psychological influences such as the Protestant “ethic” and the “spirit” of capitalism, which called for flexible ideological networks.
                Durkheim thought religion was central to solidarity. Marx thought it was “an opiate” which stupefied humans into conflict and lack of concern for others. Max Weber thought Protestant individualism led to individual work “ethic”, and a “spirit” of capitalism. Bruce Chilton (2008) says the three monotheist religions (Jews, Christians and Muslims) all trace their roots back to Abraham, but as cousins constantly fight each other. Belief in one God, results in many individual interpretations, so freedom often leads to individualism and conflict. So what do you do when terrorists use methods of violence and sacrifice their lives, believing their God will reward them for it?

Linking political systems and war systems—systemic risks, paradoxes and blind spots
Gorm Harste, Department of Political Science, Aarhus University, Denmark

Abstract
Decisive parts of the Western political system have demonstrated a seemingly surprising misinterpretation of military might. As Madelaine Albright has suggested, the mighty perceived themselves as “almighty”. Political power seems to have invested in instrumental coercive power relations and found military coercion to be the appropriate mean. Using the system theory and the theory of systemic risks displayed by the German sociologist Niklas Luhmann the article demonstrates how military systems due to their own autonomy and autopoiesis do not fit into the idea of political government. The Clausewitzian ideal of a political system that could continue its power games by means of war was moderated by Clausewitz’ own analysis of “friction”. How can a political system be so blind towards the possibilities of another system? What are the risks of systemic blind spots? The argument of the paper proceeds using actual as well as historical materials inside the framework of recent system theory.

Global Governance:  The Case of Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing
Leena Thacker Kumar and Joel R. Campbell

Abstract
This paper examines efforts at international cooperation and international organizations’ role in the fight against money laundering and terrorist financing before and after 9/11.  Globalization makes it more difficult to effectively address issues requiring global governance within the limits of state/country laws.  We employ Robert Keohane’s concept of “governance dilemma” and Slaughter’s theory of “government networks” to international efforts to deal with money laundering and terrorist financing.  Keohane states that although a world governed by international institutions is beneficial, it posses a threat to our liberty.  Slaughter offers a solution to problem in her theory of “government networks” wherein she states that “relatively loose, cooperative arrangements across borders” form the basis for post-modern governance.
It is often said that global problems require global solutions.  Such a framework can promote cooperation among nation states while protecting state sovereignty.  Global governance mechanisms involving the state provide a middle ground between the liberal internationalist view that supranational authorities such as the United Nations should formulate rules and regulations for global issues, and the New Medievalists who proclaim the end of the nation state in an age of fragmented governance.  It provides a viable alternative to supra-nationalism, which because it robs states of sovereignty often ends up unworkable, and ad hoc efforts of disconnected states, which often proves ineffective.  An international regime of laws, rules and regulations for money laundering and terrorist financing has been established within a complex network of governmental, nongovernmental and intergovernmental surveillance efforts.  We focus on the efforts of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank and private groups such as the Egmont Group and the Wolfsberg Group in combating money laundering and terrorist financing.

How Successful Is Terrorism?
James M. Lutz, Department of Political Science, Indiana University-Purdue University at Fort Wayne
Brenda J. Lutz, Department of Politics, University of Dundee, Scotland

Abstract:
Observers have suggested that terrorism almost always fails to achieve any of its objectives.  Others, however, have argued that terrorism has been more successful in achieving at least some important goals for the groups mounting the violent actions.  Of course, since terrorist is a weapon of the weak, it will often fail to achieve any of the political objectives of the organization.  Terrorist groups supported or tolerated by governments that target their own citizens have been something of an exception to this pattern of failure for obvious reasons.  While dissident extremist groups resorting to terrorism usually fail, the question is how often do any of the groups actually accomplish at least some of their goals.
An analysis of some of the better known organizations relying on terrorism indicates that while success may be rare, groups have realized objectives through the use of this form of violence.  Organizations rooted in ethnic or nationalist grievances—including colonial situations—have been among the more successful.  There have been somewhat fewer apparent instances of obvious success for religious groups and for terrorist organizations primarily motivated by various ideologies.  Perhaps the most important conclusion is that terrorism as a technique has been successful often enough to provide encouragement to other groups seeking to obtain political change.  The chances of success may be small for weak groups facing powerful opponents, but there is at least the possibility that a reliance on terrorism can work.

An Interdisciplinary Approach to Tolerance of Ambiguity, Ecumenical Theology, and World Peace
Joseph McGahan, Professor of Psychology and Co-Director of the Social Science Research Laboratory, The University of Louisiana at Monroe
Joseph Roberts, Student, The University of Louisiana at Monroe
Keith Wilkerson, Community Partner of the Social Science Research Laboratory, The University of Louisiana at Monroe

Abstract
Vahinger’s (1924) philosophy of “as if” presumes fictions can enrich life. Aside from periods of respite, peace may be nothing more than fiction. Nevertheless, the power of this illusion, along with lives saved during lulls in conflict, make this goal “so worthy that it is glorious even to fail.” However, state-sponsored warfare and global terrorism represent threats to this dream. Therefore, ways to reduce conflict are needed for this dream to have a chance. And, this paper proposes tolerance of ambiguity and ecumenical theologies can be helpful towards this end.
                Indeed, tolerance of ambiguity (specifically, ambiguities and uncertainties intentionally exploited by terrorists and countries such as Israel) and an ecumenical approach to theology (based on the assumption humans are fools that, only occasionally, have insight into truth) could foster humility, appreciation for others, and greater periods of peace that could be useful in the quest for truth. Moreover, given the generic meaning of ecumenical, it seems reasonable an interdisciplinary approach may foster an open mind and, thereby, embolden us to resist the ubiquitous human default to dogma and the ultimate conflict that ensues when one group asserts its elitists ideology while, implicitly, if not explicitly, insulting everyone else.

The Global Financial Crisis—caused by Greed, Moral Meltdown and Public Policy Disasters
Donald T. Wargo, Norman Baglini, and Kate Nelson

The Millennium’s First Global Financial Crisis
Financial markets around the world experienced profound losses beginning in 2007 and continuing through early 2009 as a result of the Worldwide credit crisis. The crisis was caused by the collapse of the markets for what were termed Collateralized Debt Obligations (‘CDO’s’). These CDO’s were bonds backed by mortgages on houses in the U.S. but the bonds were bought not only by U.S. banks but also by many municipalities and by European banks. The attractiveness of these bonds was that they paid higher interest rates than U.S. Treasuries or Corporate Bonds. When the CDO markets collapsed - due to massive defaults on the underlying mortgages -the CDO’s became worthless and the banks holding large numbers of them became insolvent. In order to avoid the collapse of the entire U.S. financial system, the U.S. Government has already given $350 Billion in federal bailout money to over 200 banks and financial institutions and governments similarly rescued many other banks in Europe.