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Summer 2008: Table of Contents

||Curriculum||Environment||History||Human Rights Law||Literature||Migration and Diversity||Religion||
||Trade||Arts and Sciences (Two Cultures)|| Women's Issues||

Environment

• Sustainable mining through innovation in waste disposal
  Shahid Azam
• Climate Change and Sustainability: Connecting Atmospheric, Ocean and Climate Science with Public Literacy
  Mary Louise Batteen, Timothy Peter Stanton, and Wieslaw Maslowski
• Institutionalising Environmental Space at the Global Level
  Ton Bührs
• Sustainability: A Challenge For Domestic Households In Daily Life
  Elisabeth Leicht-Eckardt
• Improving Campus Sustainability: The Authentic Results from Higher Education on Environmental Sustainability, Student Engagement, and Financial Effectiveness
  Steven S. Kreidler,  Lane G Perry III, and  Bob J. Ault
• Sustainability of Gaia: A Question of Balance
  M. Y. Leclerc, E. Holland, T. Foken and N. Pingintha
• Plant biotechnology helps quest for sustainability: With emphasis on climate change and endangered plants
  David W.M. Leung
• Evaluation of post-Kyoto frameworks focusing on sector-based approaches and national numerical targets
  Ryuji Matsuhashi, Hiromasa Mori, Kohei Misumi, and Yoshikuni Yoshida
• A Policy for Sustainability of Low Volume Traffic Roads in an Australian Context
  Kerry John McManus
• Use of the Historic Range of Variability to Evaluate Ecosystem Sustainability
  Carolyn B. Meyer, Dennis H. Knight and Greg K. Dillon
• Rethinking Groundwater Supplies in Light of Climate Change: How Can Groundwater be Sustainablly Managed While Preparing for Water Shortages, Increased Demand, and Resource Depletion?
  Sarah J. Meyland
• Wind Power and Seawater, Save Corn from Ethanol Production
  Masataka Murahara
• The Public Management of Water Resources in South Africa
  G.J. Pienaar and E. van der Schyff
• Developing Social Resilience Amidst Climate Change and Global Insecurity: Finding Peaceful Pathways to the Future 
  Ruth A. Reck
• Towards Energy Sustainability: A Quest of Global Proportions
  Marc A. Rosen
• The Link between Human Health and Sustainability
  May Linda Samuel
• Habitat Restoration: An Aspect of Sustainable Management
  H. R. Thorpe
• Correlation of Affect, Verbal Commitment, Knowledge, Locus of Control and Attitude to Environmentally Responsible Behavior in Designers of the Built Environment: Is Knowledge Enough?
  Kathy Weidenboerner

* + * + * + * + * + * + * + * +

Sustainable mining through innovation in waste disposal
Shahid Azam

Abstract
Economic prosperity depends on exploring new sources of energy and materials along with the development of existing reserves. However, all human activity must ensure that the environment is preserved for current inhabitants and future generations of this planet. Mining of the earth’s resources produces waste materials (slurry tailings and waste rocks) of variable nature and extent. Effective management of these waste streams necessitates cost effective, environmentally friendly, and socially viable engineering solutions. Despite several inherent challenges within the mining industry, the waste disposal practice has consistently improved over the years. The main objective of this article is to develop a clear understanding of sustainable development in mining through innovation in waste disposal. Two innovative methods at different development stages and focusing on producing engineered materials with superior geotechnical and geochemical properties are described. The sustainability benefits of tailings thickening and co-mixing of tailings and waste rock are highlighted.

Climate Change and Sustainability: Connecting Atmospheric, Ocean and Climate Science with Public Literacy
Mary Louise Batteen, Timothy Peter Stanton, and Wieslaw Maslowski

Abstract
Climate has changed throughout Earth’s history, sometimes slowly, sometimes abruptly. Organisms have either adapted to the changes or have ceased to exist. From a human perspective, climate change may profoundly influence civilization. To make responsible decisions about adaptations to climate change including sustainability, the public must understand climate change. The trouble with gaining this understanding is two-fold. From a scientific perspective, the dynamics of coupled atmosphere, ocean and climate processes responsible for climate change are complex and are still being systematically investigated. From a public perspective, one needs to learn enough about the complex climate change processes to ensure human life remains sustainable.
Here we focus on some of the processes related to the ocean’s role in modulating and regulating climate and environmental changes, using the Arctic Ocean as a key example. We then present the public’s perception of climate change from press articles, including one stating that the Arctic Ocean could soon be ice-free during summertime.  Finally we show attempts to bridge the gap between science and the press through atmospheric, ocean and climate literacy programs to help the public make scientifically informed, responsible decisions about climate change and to advance understanding of the impacts of climate change and sustainability.      

Institutionalising Environmental Space at the Global Level
Ton Bührs
Abstract
The notion of environmental space has been advanced to make sustainability concrete. In a world where environmental limits are becoming increasingly apparent, the idea, based on recognition of these limits and a strong equity principle, offers a more positive approach to dealing with the growing ‘environmental scarcity’ than the ‘protection of environmental security’ scenarios that are presently unfolding themselves. However, although there have been some moves towards the adoption of the notion of environmental space as a basis for policy development, at the national and international level, questions about whether and how the idea can or should be implemented remain largely open. What seems clear is that, to promote feasibility, fairness and effectiveness, the notion of environmental space will need to be institutionalised at the global level.

This paper discusses and assesses three options for globally institutionalising this approach, and assesses these on their strengths, weaknesses and limitations in the light of the principles of ecological effectiveness, equity, economic efficiency and feasibility (practical and political).
The three options are: the commercialisation of environmental space, for instance, in the form of greenhouse gas emissions trading schemes; global ‘green planning’, weakly exemplified by the adoption of Agenda 21, the Millennium Development Goals and other global policy agreements; and a global income policy, and idea that, as yet, has not even entered the international agenda, but which, in my view, merits serious consideration.

The paper concludes that all three options have significant weaknesses and limitations, and that none of these, as well as various other options, is likely to provide, on its own, an effective means of implementing the notion of environmental space. Each option appeals to a different rationality (economic, political, ethical), and it is likely that, if the idea of environmental space is to be institutionalised, a combination of these approaches will be required.

Sustainability: A Challenge For Domestic Households In Daily Life
Elisabeth Leicht-Eckardt

Summary
In the face of climate change, sustainability (with its three pillars of ecology, economy, and social affairs) ought to be a governing principle of all areas of consumption and production in every domestic household. Households as such may seem to have very little impact on climate change in the world, but these small economic and social units do exist in every society, engrave behaviour patterns in childrens’ memories and decide about a family’s everyday-life output of CO2. However, issues related to individual and social habits, information, education, economic resources and infrastructure create obstacles to sustainable practice in households.
The paper shows food-related obstacles towards sustainability in domestic households and tries to offer some solutions in the context of Home Economics in the Western World, based on experience of the University of Applied Sciences Osnabrück, Germany, which has created a centre for consumer information, nutrition, sustainable food production and post-harvest technology. The new, ecologically designed building was opened in July 2004 and houses the research institute for Home Economics and Nutritional Sciences at the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Landscape Architecture. The so-called WABE-Centre (Waldhof Action Benefit Experience) consists of three sections: the showcase and professional cheese production rooms, the multifunctional rooms for exhibitions, conferences and lectures, and the catering kitchen, which undertakes scientifically monitored and environmentally friendly production of ecologically grown regional food on a domestic scale for approximately 40,000 visitors to date.

Improving Campus Sustainability: The Authentic Results from Higher Education on Environmental Sustainability, Student Engagement, and Financial Effectiveness
Steven S. Kreidler,  Lane G Perry III, and  Bob J. Ault

Abstract
This research study will introduce and educate the reader on sustainability efforts that most effectively and efficiently meet expected outcomes vs. those that fall short of expectations. This study focuses on the variability and success of determined sustainability efforts and the effects these programs have upon implementation. The study will seek to determine the success of various sustainability efforts currently being implemented at institutions of higher-education. The researcher will answer the question: which sustainability programs implemented in higher education institutions have the greatest impact on a scale of environmental sustainability, student engagement and financial effectiveness?
The researcher will conduct the research via descriptive survey with an emphasis on cohort research of the sample (n = 45) by the research outcomes of the Multifactor Sustainability Assessment with the sample representing higher education institutions. There will be five general initiatives that will include the following items: transportation, curriculum and student activities, physical operations/facilities management, alternative fuel sources, and consumer actions. Within the five general initiatives, twenty specific initiatives will be surveyed and analyzed to answer the above research question.

Sustainability of Gaia: A Question of Balance
M. Y. Leclerc, E. Holland, T. Foken and N. Pingintha

Overview
With the mixed publicity in the media related to climate change, the scientifically credible, robust facts are often overshadowed by mixed, contradictory, or plainly wrong stories. This paper dispels myths and lays the foundation behind the scientific evidence pertaining to the ongoing changes in our climate and to our planet.

Plant biotechnology helps quest for sustainability: With emphasis on climate change and endangered plants
David W.M. Leung

Abstract
Natural resources are not unlimited. Some indigenous plants in different regions have already become extinct. With mounting scientific evidence for climate change, it has been projected that this is an additional threat to this already vulnerable natural resource.

Plant biotechnology which has the potential to help build a sustainable economy based on primary plant production can also be applied to assist indigenous endangered plants. In particular, plant tissue culture technology including micropropagation has much potential in facilitating experimental studies to gain a better understanding of the biology of endangered plants. This will be of benefit to the development of appropriate management strategies to safeguard the sustainability of endangered plants. However, adequate funding must be made available from the public goods domain to achieve this.

Evaluation of post-Kyoto frameworks focusing on sector-based approaches and national numerical targets
Ryuji Matsuhashi, Hiromasa Mori, Kohei Misumi, and Yoshikuni Yoshida

Abstract.   Since the fourth assessment report of IPCC was published in 2007, the worldwide concern on climate change has been growing unprecedentedly.  While the first commitment period of Kyoto Protocol already started from this year, international negotiation has begun on a framework in the next period, what is often called the “post-Kyoto framework”.  We need to explore efficient and fair institution of mitigating climate changes on the post-Kyoto framework. Under these circumstances, sector-based approaches are attracting attention, since it is not only promising to economically reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but also expected to be accepted by developing countries.  In sector-based approaches, each nation set numerical targets as greenhouse gas intensities in individual sectors including industry, residence or transportation, so that they commit to reduce these intensities to realize the targets.
In this paper, we first proposed the methodology combining cross-impact method and Bayesian inference to project what type of institution will be adopted as post-Kyoto frameworks.  Computed results identified the several frameworks as post-Kyoto candidates with high probabilities.  Then we evaluated the candidates for post-Kyoto frameworks.  For this purpose, analytic hierarchy process is applied, taking account of reduction of greenhouse gases, economic impact, possibility of making consensus, and initiative in global negotiation.  The evaluated result indicated that the framework has the highest score, in which industrialized and developing countries adopt national numerical target and partial sector-based approaches, respectively.  Even if the national numerical targets are imposed as the post-Kyoto framework, we can apply the concept of a sector-based bottom-up approach to set rational numerical targets by summing up GHG emissions in individual sectors.  We concluded that sector-based approaches are effective for both industrialized and developing countries.

A Policy for Sustainability of Low Volume Traffic Roads in an Australian Context
.Kerry John McManus

Use of the Historic Range of Variability to Evaluate Ecosystem Sustainability
Carolyn B. Meyer, Dennis H. Knight and Greg K. Dillon

Abstract
Ecosystems are not static, having evolved with disturbances such as fire, windstorms, floods, disease, and animal activity. The natural variability imposed by such disturbances must be included when defining sustainability goals. One approach is to target the historic range of variability (HRV), determining if current management maintains the ecosystem within its HRV. Tree cores; stand age; stable isotopes; ancient packrat middens; museum collections; and sediment records of charcoal, pollen, testate amoebae, or animal hair can provide data for reconstructing the HRV.
An advantage of using the HRV as a standard against which to measure sustainability of existing conditions is that it can provide a measurable target related to ecosystem biodiversity and productivity. Disadvantages are twofold. Historic data for some key ecosystem variables may be sparse, and climate change has altered the future trajectory from that of the past, confounding the interpretation of the effect of management actions. Supplementary analyses can help overcome these challenges. Recommended approaches are (1) using modern natural areas to estimate the HRV under a climate similar to existing conditions and (2) mechanistic, stochastic modeling to bracket environmental variability and incorporate climate change. Climate change can be added to models to predict if the future range of variability under different management scenarios is beyond the long-term historic range of variability, treating climate change as an anthropogenic effect also changing ecosystem sustainability. The three approaches—HRV analysis, modern reference area comparisons, and stochastic, mechanistic modeling—can help modernize management and restoration success standards that are often static and do not consider the future trajectory in ecosystem states and variability.

Rethinking Groundwater Supplies in Light of Climate Change: How Can Groundwater be Sustainablly Managed While Preparing for Water Shortages, Increased Demand, and Resource Depletion?
Sarah J. Meyland

Abstract
Although 70% the Earth’s surface is covered by water, freshwater makes up only 3% of the total water on the planet.  Most freshwater is stored as ice in glaciers and polar ice sheets.  Although humans rely heavily on freshwater from streams, rivers and lakes, this water amounts to only 0.02% of all water on Earth.  By far, most liquid freshwater is stored in aquifers as groundwater. Even so, groundwater makes up only 1% of all water on the planet. 

As climate change progresses, groundwater reserves will become increasingly important. There is mounting evidence that water tables are falling around the world. Surface water resources are also showing signs of stress.   However, groundwater is harder to manage and protect than surface water since it is hidden from sight.  A new effort is needed to put groundwater systems under the management and protection of special agencies specifically created for the job.  Groundwater districts, authorities, commissions and similar designations should be established for significant groundwater systems around the world.  Management authorities can provide equitable administration of intra-state, inter-state and international aquifer basins using sound scientific research and management plans, implemented by professional staffs.  The management agencies can conduct studies, prepare management strategies, quantify the resource, determine equitable distribution of the water, and establish safety margins for allocations in anticipation of climate swings like severe drought. The needs of humans are balanced against the needs of other stakeholders such as the ecosystem and its inhabitants as allocations are made.  Groundwater may be the water of last resort in the future. Strong management and protection of important groundwater sources will become increasingly critical as communities across the U.S. and the world work toward sustainable use of all the earth’s natural resources.  

Abstract
The “Offshore Integrated Manufacturing Plant” is proposed to prevent an artificial collapse in prices for corns, to solve the problems of food crisis and global warming simultaneously, and to make a peace loving, sustainable society without resource wars.  This on-site manufacturing plant is located on the raw material called “seawater” and is equipped with a wind power station.  Utilizing offshore wind energy and seawater, sodium is produced as a solid fuel on site by molten-salt electrolysis and transported to a power consumption place on land, where the sodium will be made to react with water to produce hydrogen for power generation.  The sodium hydroxide, a by-product, is used as a raw material for the soda industry.
Along with the electrolysis factory described above, the ethanol factory, the vegetable farm, and the fish-raising farm on mega-float are designed to accommodate each other with chemicals such as fresh water, magnesium, calcium, chlorine, carbon dioxide, oxygen, hydrogen, hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, and sulfuric acid, as well as wastes produced and use them efficiently, to attain “Zero Waste”, to decrease the energy loss in production, storage, and transportation, and to improve the efficiency of the whole system.

The Public Management of Water Resources in South Africa
G.J. Pienaar and E. van der Schyff

Summary
The main purpose of the National Water Act 36 of 1998 is to provide for water resource management on an equitable basis to achieve the sustainable use of water for the benefit of all water users. The previous distinction between public and private water was abolished and the Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry acts as trustee of the nation’s water resources to ensure that water is protected, used, developed, conserved, managed, and controlled to the benefit of all people. As a result no individual has an exclusive right to the use of water, and water resources are national assets managed by the state. The Act provides that, in general, any water use must be allocated by way of general authorization, licenses, or permits. The discretionary powers of the responsible water authority in dealing with applications for and allocation of use rights, as well as compensation for previous water users who lost water use rights, are dealt with in the Act.

Although no water user had ownership of water in terms of common law principles or the previous Act (unless such water had been separated and contained), these water users did have property rights as stipulated by section 25 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 in the form of limited real rights and other use rights recognized by the previous Act. The question arises whether the provisions of the new Act to terminate the exclusive water rights constitute a deprivation or an expropriation of such property rights. The new property concept in terms of section 25 and the distinction between expropriation and deprivation are examined in this paper. The requirements for expropriation, deprivation, and constructive expropriation (inverse condemnation) are discussed with reference to applicable case law. The preference of water entitlements exercised in the public interest to previous exclusive water rights of individuals, and the possibility of compensation to previous users who lost their water rights, are indications of inverse condemnation. 

Developing Social Resilience Amidst Climate Change and Global Insecurity: Finding Peaceful Pathways to the Future 
Ruth A. Reck

Abstract

The time for discussing pending climate change is past.  Climate change is now upon us and it becomes prudent to consider, how do we improve our ability to adapt to a world of growing environmental and political insecurity?  How do we deal with the social consequences of climatic change where political factions make local and regional adaptation a high risk process?  Developed countries have much to lose if the consequences of consequences are not dealt with adequately, with fairness and respect for the rights of individuals.  This paper will begin to lay out a framework upon which the principles of climate change and social struggle could be dealt with together.

Towards Energy Sustainability: A Quest of Global Proportions
Marc A. Rosen

Abstract
Sustainability is a critically important goal for human activity and development. Sustainability in the area of energy is of great importance to any plans for overall sustainability given 1) the pervasiveness of energy use, 2) its importance in economic development and living standards, and 3) the significant impacts that energy processes and systems have had, and continue to have, on the environment. Many factors that need to be considered and appropriately addressed in moving towards energy sustainability are examined in this article. These include appropriate selection of energy resources bearing in mind sustainability criteria, facilitation of the use of sustainable energy resources, enhancement of the efficiency of energy-related processes, and a holistic adoption of environmental stewardship in energy activities. In addition, other key sustainability measures are addressed, such as economics, equity, land use, lifestyle, sociopolitical factors and population. Conclusions are provided related both to options and pathways for energy sustainability and to the broader ultimate objective of sustainability.

The Link between Human Health and Sustainability
May Linda Samuel

Abstract
Individual behaviors and physical and social environments play major roles in the health of people and communities. The social and physical environments include factors that affect individuals positively or negatively and might not be under their control.  The physical environment can do harm when individuals and communities are exposed to toxic substances, irritants, infectious agents, and physical hazards in homes, schools and worksites.  The physical environment can also support good health through clean water, clean air, safe food, and effective waste management.  The social environment includes interactions with family, friends, co-workers and the rest of the community.  It also includes structural components such as housing, public transportation, land use, industry and agriculture. Individuals and their behaviors contribute to the social environment. Community health is profoundly affected by the collective beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of everyone who lives in the community. Poor air quality can cause problems for individuals with chronic respiratory ailments. More people mean more wastes that must end up somewhere. Contaminants from wastes can end up in the air from combustion, in our water bodies via wastewater treatment, industry discharges and stormwater runoff, or on land and landfills. Without responsible management and reduction of wastes the earth could become overrun with garbage and waste products.  Drinking water that comes from lakes and rivers has the potential to carry excessive quantities of treated waste and runoff pollution. This factor leads to difficulties and costliness for drinking water treatment plants to make the water safe to drink. Safe drinking water is a priority as population continues to grow. Planning and managing growth can lead to healthier people and healthier communities. For instance, communities can be designed to be walkable, thereby reducing traffic fatalities, pedestrian deaths and automobile emissions while encouraging exercise.  Communities also can plan to be less taxing on the environment. Impaired coastal waters reduce the human food supply of fish.  Seventy per cent of the United States commercially valuable fish spend some critical stage of their life in estuaries. Contact with surface water containing high levels of bacteria can cause human illness. It is important that wetlands be protected. Wetlands play a vital role in flood prevention, the storage and cleaning of stormwater before it reaches waterways, and in providing important habitat to many species of plants and animals, most of which could not survive outside of wetlands or without the biological services that wetlands provide. If a wetland is filled, it can lead to more flooding in a region because the stormwater storage capability of that wetland will have been lost.  Continued ditching around wetlands will lead to a larger loss of wetland acreage on private lands. Communities can help rebuild their commercial and industrial centers, remove or mitigate existing pollution or contamination problems, and minimize sprawl. Often an industry can be the backbone of a community. The availability of jobs in clean and responsible industries can only improve the health of the local economy, but also the health of the community and its residents by removing contaminants that might not otherwise be cleaned up.

Habitat Restoration: An Aspect of Sustainable Management
H. R. Thorpe

Abstract
Christchurch, New Zealand was colonized by British settlers, with substantial organized migration beginning in 1850.  In pre-European times the area where the city is located was swampy and the colonists made early efforts to drain the land.  The present drainage system is focused on the three small urban rivers Styx, Avon and Heathcote which are spring fed and run clear and steady except when transporting storm water.  The city and riparian areas have been extensively altered with introduced vegetation replacing native species and channelisation of the smaller waterways.  This has had significant effects on the river ecosystems and maintenance is costly.
In the past 12 years the city authorities have developed an asset management plan which broadens the concept of urban river management beyond the purely utilitarian drainage function.  A multi-valued approach to management is now applied, the values considered being: landscape, ecology, recreation, culture, heritage and drainage.
Clearly costed management plans incorporating social objectives and restoration of natural values together with the traditional drainage function results in feasible, sustainable management which in the long term is likely to be cheaper.  The benefits are to both people and wildlife—the native birds and the whitebait are returning! While management of Christchurch’s rivers is a miniscule issue on the world scene there are some useful general principles to be drawn from the case study.

Correlation of Affect, Verbal Commitment, Knowledge, Locus of Control and Attitude to Environmentally Responsible Behavior in Designers of the Built Environment: Is Knowledge Enough?
Kathy Weidenboerner

Abstract
This research asks the question:  What characteristics in an individual are more likely to determine Environmentally Responsible Behavior (ERB)?  Is it Affect (the emotional basis of behavior), Verbal Commitment (what we say we will do), Knowledge (what we know of the environmental crisis), Locus of Control (our belief that our individual actions can make a difference), or Attitude (how much we care about the consequences of our behavior)?  The population tested included architects and designers based on their ability to specify construction methods and materials that have a direct impact on the energy efficiency and use of sustainable materials in building design.  
        The research results in this study indicate that knowledge of a problem and the skill to take action are, alone, not enough to effect environmentally responsible behavior.  Information from this study can lead to a discussion of methods to more effectively motivate ERB through environmental education and, more specifically, within design and architecture programs of study.

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